Male Academic Underachievement

The issue of male academic underachievement continues to attract worldwide attention. In Trinidad and Tobago, the situation is consistent with what has been found regionally and internationally. Frymier and Gansneder (1989) suggest that when students endure male academic underachievement, they become at risk and suffer from a variety of negative factors such as crime, illiteracy, substance abuse, dropping out of school, poverty and suicide.
In addition, Superville (1999) asserts that academic underachievers display "learned helplessness" - a condition in which they do not try to reach a goal because they lack self - confidence and feel that their efforts would not succeed. As such, they reinforce experiences of alienation and a negative sense of belonging, feeling cut off from family, friends, school and work as an affect of seeming incompetence.
Various factors that may contribute to this phenomenon include the biological, social and personal history of the individuals as well as a lack of parental involvement and expectation which can de - motivate a child and cause him /her to become a chronic academic underachiever. In addition, males who suffer from low self esteem feel that they have been " stigmatized" and , as such , there is no genuine desire to do good in school since thsy believe that their efforts will go unnoticed.

Reading Comprehension

Sweet & Snow (2003) define Reading Comprehension as, " the process of extracting and constructing meaning from text." There are three interactive elements which impact comprehension: the reader, the text, and the context. The reader is doing the comprehension. The reader's capabilities, abilities, knowledge, and experiences impact the act of reading. The text is anything that is read. The context is the activities of which comprehension is a part. The authors further suggest that there are three dimensions to these activities. These include purpose ( why is the reader reading the text ); processes (what mental activity must the reader engage in); and consequences ( what did the reader learn or experience as a result of reading the text).
There are two major types of text - narrative and expository. The structural pattern, or the way information is organised , and the relationships those ideas form to communicate meaning are different. Narrative text typically follows a single structural pattern often called story grammar. Expository text comes in a variety of patterns; for example, description, sequence, compare- contrast, cause - effect , and problem solution.
Expository, or informational texts convey and communicate factual information , and are generally more difficult to comprehend due to the variety of structures and unfamiliar content.

Motivation

All educators need to be aware of the concept of motivation if he /she is to effect any meaningful change in a student/ individual. Lyons, C. (2003) explains that "motivation" comes from the Latin word "movere" which means to "set in motion". The root of motivation is' motive' which is an inner drive, impulse, incentive, goal to be reached that causes a person to act in a certain way. According to Lyons, "Motivation" is an internal state of mind that an individual must activate himself. It is self - generated and happens within the child. In other words , it is not done to the child.
There are basically two types of motivation:
i. Intrinsic - an internal desire to become involved in an activity that reflects the genuine inclinations of the child.
ii. Extrinsic- this is an individual's involvement in an activity because an incentive or reward external to the activity has been offered.
The overarching goal of motivation is to promote the development of motivation that arises from the child's own nature and inclinations. In other words, children must be intrinsically motivated to become self- regulater, independent, life - long learners.

Reading across the curriculum

Teaching reading is an integral part of all content areas. Therefore, every teacher must be a reading teacher. The concern is why is reading so important in the content areas. Firstly, content area teachers affirm that students do not have the skills to read and comprehend text. As such, teachers need to be skilled in content - based reading strategies. Secondly, skills needed depend on the content and text.Undoubtedly, content teachers are best qualified to help students comprehend the material presented by developing prior knowledge on the topic. Thirdly, teachers must provide opportunities for students so that they will be better prepared to meet identified standards in all areas. In addition, background knowledge provide an essential link between what students understand and what they read.
Teachers need to acquaint themselves with techniques and strategies in teaching reading so as to be more competent in their respective content area. These strategies include:
-Reading Instruction
-Respond to Reading
- Develop Vocabulary
- Questions-Answers - Relationships
- Use a Reader's checklist
- Think Aloud
- Anticipation Guide
-SQ3R- Survey, Question, Recite and Review
- K-W-L strategy
- Expository Text Structure and
- Develop Prior Knowledge

Why a reading specialist?

I am an English Language /English Literature teacher for the past nineteen years at all levels of the secondary school system. As such, I am exposed to the myriad of problems - physical, psychological, social, mental, emotional, financial - which students experience ,and which have a profound negative impact on their learning abilities. Students are frustrated with the school system and may choose various negative channels to vent their frustration . Quite too often, students may tend to "drop out" of the school system.
My extensive and varied interaction with students clearly reveal that too many times , students encounter problems in reading. In fact, various surveys conducted in my school reveal that students are operating at the frustrational level in reading. Clearly this will impact negatively on their learning abilities.
The opportunity to read for the Masters in Education (Reading), and, by extension, be trained as a Reading Specialist seemed the obvious panacea to make that meaningful, significant, and positive difference in the lives of the students. I clearly anticipate that I will be exposed to the various tools /strategies to become competent and confident in working with students , thereby contributing to a more functional, literate society.

The importance of vocabulary

Vocabulary is a principle contributor to comprehension , fluency and achievement. Vocabulary development is an outcome of comprehension and a precursor to it. Therefore, teaching vocabulary well is a key aspect in developing engaged and successful readers. Content area teachers must note that a knowledge of words and vocabulary is critical for the successful understanding of the particular subject area. In order to be effective teachers of vocabulary in their content area, teachers must bear in mind the following:

i English is a huge and unique collection of words. It is three times larger than any other language and english grows and changes daily with "neologisms" (new words) from science, technology and culture.

ii. The rules of English are simple and consistent compared with other languages.

iii. Language proficiency grows from oral competence to written competence.Vaca and Vaca (2006), suggest that "words are tools for analysing, inferring, evaluating and reasoning." Students with a large vocabulary base are more articulate, possess confidence as compared to students who lack vocabulary and conceptual knowledge.

iv. Words are learned because of associations that connect the new with the known. Information about words is "Dual- Coded" that is , they are processed in linguistic and non-linguistic forms.

v. Approximately 75% of the most frequently used words have multiple meanings. It is important to show students how to use context to figure out new words.

vi. The meanings of 60% of multisyllabic words can be inferred by analysing word parts. A knowledge of the meaning of Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes often give clues to what a word means.

vii. Direct instruction in vocabulary influences comprehension more than any other factor. As such, there is the need for thoughtful and systematic instruction in key vocabulary. Instruction in the meanings of new words, and sounds promotes more effective word learning than just analysing context (Juel and Deffes,2004).

viii.Teaching fewer words is more effective than teaching several words in a cursory way. In fact, some content area material may contain conceptually dense terms and most students need instruction in technical vocabulary. As Robb (2000) suggests, " it is more effective to teach few words well than all".

ix.Effective teachers display an attitude of excitement and interest in words and language. Teachers are excited about words, language, they model, encourage, engage students in wordplay , diction and independent investigation into words to build word consciousness.
Karen Bromley (2007) suggests that these are factors which teachers should know about words and vocabulary instruction if they are to immerse their students in language and provide direct instruction that is thoughtful, intentional and varied.

Benefits of podcasting

I am definitely interested in the use of the podcast in my classroom environment. Research on this technological device suggest that the benefits are numerous for all content area teachers. A podcast is simply a series of digital media files , usually digital, audio, or video that is made available for download via web syndication. As Farivar (2005) suggests, podcasts are " audio files created to be distributed over the Internet. They are available for fr e and are usually encoded in MP3 format". Podcasting then is the"ability to create or listen to audio or video content called a podcas, via the Web, either live or dowmloaded for later viewing/ listening on your desktop /laptop, or a mobile device",Williams (2007).
The benefits of podcasting include the following:
- It is an effective way of interactingwith students outside the classroom
- A form of learning students of today are familiar with and therefore, makes it relevant to them
- It allows for differentiation and project based learning
- It promotes creativity and innovation
- It can offer distance learning opportunities for absent students
- The process of creating and uploading audio files is easy
- Students can record role plays in character ,making their learning more memorable
- Parents can see and hear what their are doing at school
- It caters to multi- lingual education
- It facilitates self-paced learning
- It definitely assists in the remediation of slow learners
- It provides a medium to offer advanced and /or highly motivated learners with extra content
- It offers a rich learning environment.
Podcasting has the capacity of advancing students education beyond the classroom,and must be
encouraged in the classroom environment.

Tips for teaching reading

Reading is the single most important educational skill any child will learn . Understanding the organisation and meaning of text and instruction in both phonics and literature is essential to helping children to read. Therefore, an understanding of the prerequisite skills for reading can build a solid foundation for students to learn and to succeed in school.
The following factors must be taken into consideration:
1. Create an appreciation of the written word. These include activities such as exposure to stories, sharing informational texts and providing opportunities to point out the ways reading is essential to communication in everyday life.
11. Develop an awareness of the printed language and the writing system. Activities include proper organisation of books, basic knowledge of the structure of books.
111. Teach the alphabet. Familiarise individuals with the letters of the alphabet.
1v. Develop students' phonological awareness. These include listening and speaking, paying attention to the meaning of language, and teaching the sounds or phonology of the language.
v. Develop phonemic awareness. This refers to the understanding that words and syllables are comprised of a sequence of elementary speech sounds.
vi. Teach children how to sound out words. These include the ability to decode, to sound out words, to blend sounds, and to learn spelling conventions.
vii. Help children to develop fluent , reflective reading. It is necessary to read new stories, reread old stories, interactively read harder texts, and analyse contextual clues to figure out the meanings of unfamiliar words.
viii. Teach children to spell words. This includes the ability to sound out letters one by one , use of spelling knowledge and strategies and the emphasis on modelling sounds.
These suggestions / guidelines can definitely be incorporated into the classroom environment so as to assist students with reading difficulties.

Motivating Students To Read

Undoubtedly, students who have interests are engaged, and engaged thinkers and readers are better students (Guthrie&Humenick, 2004). It is important to be aware of motivating students to be active readers as well as to find the right ways to do so. The belief is that if students find the texts they are required to read unappealing or too difficult and the teaching practices around these texts fail to engage , then they may avoid reading about important topics in the content areas. In their article "Motivating Students to Read in the Content Classroom:Six Evidence -Based Principles", Brozo, W.G. & Sutton Flynt, E. (2008) suggest that these principles are guides to instructional practices in the content areas that are both motivating and engaging.
The first principle is elevating self - efficacy. This refers to the belief and confidence that students have about their capacity to accomplish meaningful tasks and produce a desired result in an academic setting. It is a fact that engaged students whether economically privileged or not can outperform their less- engaged peers.
Another principle focuses on engendering interest in new learning. An important factor in building self - efficacy is to generate interest in new content. Students are more encouraged to read and learn if the material and the learning activities interest them. Therefore, teachers need to incorporate a multiplicity of strategies and instructional practices that embrace various forms of literacy, information, and student choice related to what they are learning.
The authors suggest that students need to connect outside with their inside school literacies. This third principle posits that interesting texts in the content areas may be those that students recognise and create from their everyday worlds.Students will be motivated to read and learn in the content area classroom when they are helped to find and make connections between their everyday , multiliteracy practices and their lesson plans.
The fourth principle put forth by the writers deals with making an abundance of interesting texts available to students. The undisputed view is that introducing texts to students from their everyday worlds and a wide range of genres in content lessons will definitely encourage students to read in the content area classroom.
Students need to be entrusted with a sense of agency and autonomy in expanding their choices and options. Turner (1995) suggests that "Choice may be one of the most critical elements of motivation." As such allowing students more input into the texts they read , the response options they use to demonstrate content acquisition, and even the kind of learning experiences they participate in will serve to motivate them
The principle of structuring collaboration for motivation refers to critical social networks that support students' literacy and content learning. There must be effective collaboration between teacher and student in which teachers are seen as allies in the reading and learning process.Teachers need to create opportunities for students to work in the pursuit of new knowledge. As a result students will become more instrinsically motivated and will definitely experience a sense of belonging.
The above mentioned principles will definitely make learning more interesting and worthwhile.

Children with difficulties in learning to read

Children struggle with reading for a variety of reasons. Reid Lyon G. (2000) posits that among the myriad of factors that contribute to difficulties in reading , the following four must be borne in mind: limited experience with books, speech and hearing problems, and low phonemic awareness.
Competent readers are phonemically aware, understand the alphabetic principle, apply these skills in a rapid and fluent manner, possess strong vocabularies, grammatical and syntactical skills, and relate their reading to their own experiences.
The writer suggests that difficulties in any of these areas can affect reading development. In addition, children with stimulating literacy experiences from birth onward tend to have an advantage in vocabulary development, understanding the goals of reading, and also develop an awareness of print and literacy concepts.
It is suggested that children raised in poverty , those with a limited proficiency in English , those from homes where the parents ' reading levels and practices are low , and those with speech , language, and hearing handicaps are at an advances risk of reading failure.
Deficits in the development of phoneme awareness skills definitely have a negative effect on reading acquisition. Therefore, children need to develop phonics concepts early and apply these skills fluently in text.
Teachers and all educators need to be aware of these factors so as to effectively deal with their students.

The ABC's of content area lesson planning

Beth Hurst's article "ABC's of content area lesson planning" focuses on content area reading instruction. The writer wishes to highlight the importance of lesson planning bearing in mind the role of the ABC's- Attention, Basics, and Comprehension. The theory is designed to encourage active learning and make learning more meaningful for students.
The writer suggests that teachers can move away from the traditional views and methods of teaching. Therefore, if the ABC's of content area planning are taken into considedration, reading and learning can become more meaningful to students.
The letter A stands for Attention. The writer feels that it is important to grab the students' attention and also to make connections with the students schemata. The use of Donna Ogle's KWL strategy and also Anticipation Guides are highly recommended to capture student's attention and interest.
B, which refers to Basics, incorporates the use of minilessons. Researchers identified four steps involved in the use of minilessons so as to encourage more meaningful interaction.
C stands for Comprehension. This is the ultimate goal of lesson planning which is often neglected. The writer suggests the need to design activities to encourage students to take an active part. She also suggests strategies such as "Web of a text", "Writing "Grafitti about your favourite character", and the use of the "Request Strategy". It is important to test students high level critical thinking skills through inductive thinking. A highly recommended activity is the DRTA strategy.
The writer believes that these areas can motivate teachers to move beyond lectures and also help students to become active participants in their own learning.

Motivating the Reluctant Adolescent Reader

One of the most challenging situations which teachers experience is how to motivate the struggling adolescent reader. The article "Helping "Struggling" Students Achieve Success" written by Larry R. Johannessen is informative and relevant in this regard. The writer informs us about two ways to help"struggling" students to achieve success. These two approaches are the basics approach and the cognitive approach .
The basics approach focuses on the mechanisms of language and low level recall. On the other hand, the cognitive approach consists of eight principles of instructions designed to focus on more complex, meaningful questions and problems , making connections with students out of school experiences and engage students in powerful thinking strategies. In addition, scaffolding is used to accomplish tasks, and to encourage a high level of student interaction.
The writer presents sample activities to reinforce the concepts involved in the cognitive approach. The first activity focuses on the descriptive and narrative genres of writing in the English Language. It involves the strategy called "In The Act" - a mystery puzzler - which engages students in practice skills and thinking strategies involved in descriptive writing. The second activity - a scenario based activity- is equally effective in the teaching of Literature. It enables students to make connections between their own experiences and the world of the literacy work , and specifically the texts which they are reading.Undoubtedly, the cognitive approach is more motivational, more functional and relevant since it is "learning centered" and it assists "at risk" students to achieve their fullest potential. In addition, students are encouraged to become more independent thinkers.
The article is motivational and instructional as it highlights the benefits of using the cognitive approach. Teachers are encouraged to create a more student centered classroom , to promote peer / group work so as to motivate students to become independent thinkers and to instil a greater sense of confidence in themselves. In addition, care must be given in the selection of more relevant and appropriate exercises which will be challenging yet student friendly. Students will definitely be more encourageg to participate and to learn.

My name is Adesh Rampersad.